Comparing Hallucinations in Schizophrenics and Sufferers of Charles Bonnet Syndrome :: Biology Essays Research Papers

A Comparative Look at Hallucinations in Schizophrenics and Sufferers of Charles Bonnet Syndrome, and Their Corresponding Reality Discrimination Abilities Hallucinations are defined as sensory perceptions in the absence of externally generated stimuli (6). They are not to be confused with illusions in which actual external objects are perceived but misinterpreted by the individual (6). Hallucinations can take many forms including visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile, but for this paper we will focus primarily on the visual type. Visual hallucinations can occur in a number of different situations, two of which we will discuss here: Charles Bonnet syndrome and schizophrenia. These two conditions are unique in the causes and effects of the hallucinations resulting from each, and in the types of people in whom they occur. A most interesting distinction is that Charles Bonnet patients are aware of their hallucinations while schizophrenics are not. In the next sections I will present a description of the hallucinations that occur in each condition, and some hypothesized causes of these. I will conclude with an attempt to discover why ther e exists an awareness of hallucinations in one that is absent in the other. Charles Bonnet syndrome is the onset of hallucinations in psychologically healthy individuals who have become either visually-impaired, or completely blind. There are two main theories as to the cause of these hallucinations. The first and most popular is that they are "release hallucinations" that result from the, "removal of normal visual afferent input to association cortex" (7). This is supported by experiments involving direct stimulation of the temporal lobe, and fMRI's taken during hallucination events. These studies found that in the absence of visual input, activity was present in a particular visual area of the brain and that the resulting hallucination would be a type of image normally perceived by that area. For instance, a subject who hallucinated in color showed activity in the color center of the fusiform gyrus while a subject who hallucinated fences and brickwork showed activity in the collateral sulcus which responds to visual textures. (4) These areas normally respo nd to outside visual input, but in this case there was none. It is possible then that these areas are activated in the absence of inhibition caused by outside visual input. This would be something like the phenomenon of the chicken that runs around in circles once its head has been severed. The other theory is that hallucinations in visually-impaired individuals occur as part of a "filling in" process that is already in use by our brains.

Philosophy †Plato Essay

2. What is the role of philosophy for Socrates and why is it valuable in itself? Explain three argu- ments Socrates gives for the immortality of the soul. Briefly explain Cebes and Simmias’ coun- terarguments using examples from the text for support. Finally, based on your understanding of the Phaedo give your interpretation of the last words of Socrates and back it up by citing the text. In Plato’s The Last Days of Socrates, Phaedo gives an account of the last few hours of Socrates’ life, to Echecrates when he encounters him after Socrates’ death. In Phaedo’s telling of the story, we learn about why Philosophy was so important to Socrates, and why he spent his final hours explaining his arguments about the body and the soul, to his two friend Cebes and Simmias. Socrates presents four separate arguments as to how the soul lives separately from the body, the first being the theory of opposites, seconded by the theory of recollection, and followed by his theory of Affinity. After he presents his first three arguments, Simmias and Cebes interject with their opinions and counterarguments to Socrates’ first three, which is then when Socrates comes up with his fourth and final argument – Theory of the Forms. The last and final argument is one of the most important arguments that Socrates will make throughout the whole story. Phaedo ends his account to Echecrates by telling us of the final words of Socrates. Socrates was a well known Greek philosopher, known chiefly through the writings of his students, such as Plato who wrote the novel in which we are reflecting. Socrates did not write down any of his ideas or knowledge, but instead instilled it upon other people who took the re- sponsibility of writing it down for themselves. During Socrates’ final hours, we find out why Phi- losophy was so important to him. He argues that the soul is a separate entity from the body, and that we must separate the soul as far as possible from it. He relates this to death, by saying that death is this freeing and parting of the soul from the body. Socrates states, on page 100 line 67d exactly why Philosophy is important – â€Å"†¦those that go in for philosophy in the correct way who are always eager to set the soul free; what philosophers practice is exactly this, the freeing and parting of soul from body. † He believes that Philosophers live their lives being as close to death as possible, â€Å"those occupied correctly in philosophy really do practice dying, and death is less frightening for them than for anyone else (Plato 67a). † He states that if philosophers desire that one thing, separating the soul from the body, then they must always be close to death and to nev- er be afraid of it. Socrates presents his initial argument that â€Å"everything comes to be through opposite things coming to be from no other source than their own opposites (Plato 70e). † He believed that everything that exists, has an opposite and must have came from that opposite. He provided examples such as â€Å"the beautiful is presumably opposite to the ugly† or â€Å"when something comes to be bigger, it must be from being smaller before (Plato 70e). † In explaining this argument, he presents that between the two members of the pair, there are two-processes for the pair to come into being. In order for something to be big, it had to come from being small, it increased in size but it could go the opposite way and decrease in size as well. This argument relates to the soul and the body by saying that being alive has an opposite, which is being dead. In order for the op-posites argument to be logical, one must be able to come back from the dead and be alive, so it is from the dead that living things come to be alive. This leads us to believe that the soul is immor- tal, and existed before the body. Socrates sums up this argument by stating, â€Å"the living have come from the dead no less than the dead from the living; and I think it seemed to us that if this were the case, it would be sufficient proof that the souls of the dead must be somewhere – from where they were to be born again (Plato 72a). † Following the argument about opposites, Socrates poses the question that if we are going to recollect something, we must have had knowledge about it at a previous point in time. This is then the second argument that Plato recounts in his telling of Socrates’ last hours. What he is pre- senting in this argument, is the fact that when we recognize something, it brings us back to think- ing about something else. So when we recognize this first object, it triggers our minds to remem- ber something that is associated with that object. Therefore, when we remember something we are recollecting back to a previous state or time or object. He argues that these recollections canat are unlike the items we have recollected. He sums this thought up by saying, â€Å"So long as, on seeing one thing, you come to have something else in mind, like or unlike, from seeing the first one. What occurs must be recollection (Plato 74d). † He doesn’t stop at this, but then goes on to explain that we had this knowledge before we even obtained our senses. When we were born, we obtained the ability to see, hear, and possess all of the other senses, but we had this knowledge before our senses, so therefore we had this knowledge before we were even born. This argument leads back to his original point that the soul exists outside of the body. â€Å"Whereas if we get our knowledge before we are born but lose it on being born, and then later through the use of our perceptions we get back those pieces of knowledge that we had at some previous time, what we call learning would be a matter of getting back knowledge that was ours anyway; and we’d be surely correct if we called that recollection (Plato 75e). † Socrates’ third argument before Cebes and Simmias provide their counterarguments is his theory of Affinity. This suggests that we must distinguish between things that are material, visi- ble, and perishable and things that are immaterial, invisible, and immortal. In this case, the body is the thing that is perishable, while the soul is immortal and lives on. While arguing this to Sim- mias and Cebes, Socrates states, â€Å"the soul is something that’s very like what’s divine, deathless, the object of intellect, uniform, undissolved, and always in exactly the same state as it ever was; while body in its turn is something very like what’s human, mortal, mindless, multiform, tending to dissolution, and never the same as it was before (Plato 80b). † This is yet another argument that proves his point that when the body dies, the soul still lives. He brings up the point in this argu- ment that the soul may wander, but eventually it is put into a different body or it will spend its time with the Gods. After his third argument, Simmias and Cebes finally interject and give their counterargu- ments to Socrates. Simmias is the first to present his counterargument, by comparing the topic of the soul existing after the death of the body, to the attunement of an instrument. He states, â€Å"The argument would go, there’d be no way that the lyre could continue to exist as it does, with the strings broken, or that the strings could, while the attunement, which is of the same nature and the same kin as the divine and deathless, had already perished, before the mortal (Plato 86a-c). † He is comparing the body to an instrument, and the soul to the attunement. When the instrument is no longer there, if it was completely broken or burned, there would no longer be a tune. The tune of one instrument does not just travel to a separate instrument when the original one is gone. Cebes then gives his counterargument, not agreeing with the one Simmias just made and not ful- ly agreeing with all of Socrates’ arguments. Cebes argument states that the soul does still live on after the body is dead, but that it is not entirely immortal. He then compares the body to a cloak and the soul to the body, stating â€Å"someone might say the very same things about soul and body as about the weaver and his cloak, that the soul is something long-lived, while the body is a weaker and shorter-lived thing, but all the same, he’d say, every single soul wears out many bod-ies, especially if it has a long life – for if the body is in flux, and is perishing even while the per- son is alive, still the soul always weaves again whats being worn out. (Plato 87e). † This argu- ment he presents states that a soul can live through many bodies, as a person can go through many cloaks each as they wear out. He finishes his argument by stating that â€Å"there’s no justifica- tion yet for relying on this argument of yours, and it gives us no reassurance that when we die our soul still exists somewhere (Plato 88a). † Socrates final words at the end of Phaedo’s account were, â€Å"Crito, we owe a cock to As-clepius; pay our debt and no forgetting. † According to Greek myth, the cock symbolizes a peace offering to the god Asclepius in order to receive a cure. In this case, Socrates was getting ready to die. This could mean only two things to me, the first being that he was being cured of his life by dying and being closer than ever to the one thing that philosophers dedicate their time to, sep- arating his soul from his body and having that soul be free. The second interpretation I came up with is that he offered this cock to the god Asclepius to avoid any misfortune after he dies, while his soul is still living. All in all, Socrates had many deep and thought provoking arguments as to why the soul and the body are separate, and why the soul continues to live after the body has perished. Whether or not these arguments seemed logical, or were very believable, Socrates spent his whole life dedicated to the ideas of Philosophy, and he spent his final hours instilling his beliefs upon those who cared about him. Socrates died for what he believed in, and that’s what makes Phaedo’s account of his life so interesting. Works Cited: Plato, , and Christopher Rowe. The Last Day of Socrates. New York: Penguin Classics, 2010. 87-169. Print.

A Feminist Literary Stance, Roles of Women in Henrik...

A feminist literary stance, roles of women in Henrik Ibsen’s play A Doll’s House George Eliot’s novel Middlemarch Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and George Eliot’s Middlemarch are based on events from their personal experiences. The events that lead Ibsen to feel the need to write A Doll’s House makes his approach on the feminist stance a bit more unusual from other writers. Ibsen shows his realist style through modern views and tones that are acted out by the characters in this infamous story. In the viewers’ eyes, it is the women in A Doll’s House that makes it so popular, Nora and Christine give readers a real sense of Ibsen’s feminist stance. George Eliot makes her feminist stance in Middlemarch in much the same way as†¦show more content†¦Nora says, â€Å"Exactly as before, I was your little skylark, your doll, which you would in future treat with doubly gentle care, because it was so brittle and fragile. Torvald - it was then it dawned upon me that for eight years I had been living here with a strange man, and had borne him thr ee children† (Ibsen). Nora keeps a lot of secrets within the house from Torvald. For example, she lies about â€Å"eating macaroons† and about how she â€Å"acquired the loan† (Ibsen) for her husband’s care. Nora never intends to tell Torvald her secret, but he reads the letter and found out and it ends up costing Nora her family. After seeing that she is not but a â€Å"doll† trapped in her own imperfections, she becomes confused about her stay in the house. Nora finds out she does not â€Å"exactly know what religion is† and has â€Å"no idea what is going to become of her† (Ibsen). Nora tells the truth about her lies, is embarrassed, and then is forced to face her imperfections. Nora realizes she is not a child anymore and tells Torvald â€Å"I am going to see if I can make out who is right, the world or I† (Ibsen). Nora has reached the point in her marriage where she finally has control, she tells Torvald â€Å"I cannot spend the night in a strange mans room† and â€Å"I set you free from all your obligations. You are not to feel yourself bound in the slightest way, any more than I shall. There must be perfect freedom on both sides†

McKendree University Admissions ACT Scores More

Classism and Its Effects in Society - 852 Words

Classism and its effects on Society James Bradley Cardinal Stritch University Instructor Kevin Nettesheim Intro to written communication April 17, 2013 Abstract Throughout history classism has played an important role in how people are perceived and treated. This goes as far as race, gender, financial status, and social class of individuals. For persons of any classification to prejudge another based on their background is morally and ethically incorrect, when God created man, he created man in his likeness. Therefore, I believe that no matter who you are or what cloth you come from, we all equal. Classism hurts society; it increases stereotyping, further demeans people, and It should not under any circumstance be tolerated or†¦show more content†¦Classism affects people on an economical and emotional level; it divides society into two parts. Those who have and those who do not have, this mistreatment mainly comes from the dominant more in control groups of society, the rich. It affects the subordinated groups of society, those who are the poor and it continues to cause pain and suppression among the lower classes of society to the extent of personal fulfillment or survival. Theorized, if you are not born into this dominant class, there is no room for you in society to someday become successful and without this privilege; you are stuck, left to dogs. Yet classism is not only judged by finances, it is also judge by race, gender and religion. Classism affects the minorities of society, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and women. The mistreatment of Africans dates back to the 1600’s, and the reasons for this so called classification results from slavery, lack of education, and social status. This division of this group further suppresses Africans; it depletes the want for success within this group. As being an African American, I can honestly say, â€Å"I know classism.† You are put into class of people who you may or may not be like, the only thing you have in common is being of the same race. To be prejudged on your color and to have that related to racial background is hurtful; there only two options after something likeShow MoreRelatedClassism in North America1216 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Classism in North America    Classism is a big dilemma in several parts of the world such as North America. The word  Classism  was derived from  Class  and  -ism; the word  Class  descended from a French word, Classe, and a Latin word Classis. The word was originally created by Servius Tullius in one of the six orders into which he used to divide the Roman people for the purpose of taxation. 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Economic and Political Conduct Free Essays

The policy of any country or individual or group of individuals to conduct business and induce growth in the GDP is known as its economic conduct- it has global impact by way of international trade, foreign exchange and fiscal policies too. Nowadays economic policies are increasingly governed and shaped by global factors and imperatives. So the overall situation is dynamic and ever changing Political conduct essentially means what ideologies determine the policies and the leadership of any country, and how the representatives who form the leadership or Government interpret the ideologies and run the country- e. We will write a custom essay sample on Economic and Political Conduct or any similar topic only for you Order Now g. democracy, monarchy, communist state, fascism, etc. Political conduct determines loyalties and groups, collective developmental activities and global initiatives, and the overall growth of a country or state. Existentialism Defines the thought processes of those who believe and profess that it is we ourselves who create the essence and raison d etre in our lives, and not people above us or before us, or religious dogmas or deities. It is a school of thought which believes in finding things out in its own way, and do not believe in traditions, or what is already there and proved. They refuse to conform to any one school of thought. Existentialists like to set out and find their own way. They believe that there is surely a reason to exist and that existence precedes consciousness. Some of them even think that the concept of having a God is obsolete- that’s not what they need! As a result of the wide approach, they seldom agree with each other as well on various things. But they all seek a meaning in their lives by their beliefs in existence. Jean Paul Sartre was an existentialist. (you could read more through Googlesearch) Machiavellian Politics. Machiavelli a political thinker propounded the view that the ‘ends justifies the means’- so if you have used arbitrary or unacceptable means and achieved whatever you had set out to achieve, in his view, it is justified. As long as the end result is in the interest of the majority of the people, its fine. This form of politics is not very ethical, in fact quite radical, often used by the very ambitious, and quite often successful! It has an element of shrewdness and negative connotation. Not very favourable with the conservatives. You could go to the Net and read his book ‘The Prince’ in its translated version. Platonic Justice In his book, The Republic, written in 360 BC, Greek philosopher Plato has defined every conduct and every action required to govern a country. In short, the elements which contributed to creating and running of an effective Government at that point in time are all defined by him. It is another matter that over the centuries, transformations have happened, and though the basic aspiration of the government (to take care of its citizens/ public) stays the same, the rules of the game have changed dramatically. Platonic justice is the name given to his version of justice, as also propounded by Socrates before him- how a shoemaker must continue being a shoemaker because it is only fair that he does what he is good at, etc. (Please Googlesearch ‘The Republic by Plato’ and read on the Net for more) Monetarism Milton Friedman, the father of Monetarism, says that money supply (the amount of money in any economy at a given point in time) is the chief determinant of the level of economic activity at that point in time, especially with regards to the demand side. Simply put, the purchasing power of money is the prime mover. Monetarism is pretty much what we see today†¦though it has its origins in the oldest classical version of economic theory. (explains what we have stated in the research on flat world- the base maybe the same old theory, but the changing paradigms have rendered the theories very different from what they originally were- have improvised, built upon them to make them relevant to the current scenario. And the current scenario is determined by those who need, not by those who offer- it is a buyers market. ) Capitalism Capitalism is a form of liberal economic policy and governance where private entrepreneurship is given priority over government intervention in economic activity (all activities which contribute to a country’s GDP), because it has been seen and believed that private sector tends to be more progressive and efficient as a result of ensuing competition- each capitalist entrepreneur tries to be better than his competitor because that way he can earn higher profits, have a higher market cap, and prosper better. US is one of the very early capitalist countries, which explains the leadership position, while other countries were still being conservative and trying out a mixed economy model, or a communistic model. Communism Communism is a political term used to describe the ideologies of Karl Marx, the father of Communism. He firmly believed that the state or country should be run totally by the government, where everyone is equal- there is no blue collar and white collar demarcation and there is no private sector or capitalist aspirations. The Government is supreme and all people are equal in the eyes of the government. ‘From each according to his ability to each according to his need’ was his rule for governance. We owe May Day to Communism- it is Labour Day. His famous words: â€Å"Workers of the world unite; you have nothing to lose but your chains- you have a world to win! † You could read his treatise ‘Das Kapital’(translated version) – its available quite easily. Communist ideologies are exactly the opposite of Capitalist thinking. How to cite Economic and Political Conduct, Papers

Negative Comments for Nursing

Questions: 1.What do you think this opinion is based on? 2.Discuss how this scenario could affect the patient ? 3. What are the ramifications of a senior nurse expressing this opinion? 4. How would you respond to this statement? Answers: 1. In my opinion, I hold the view that this opinion is based on stereotype and evidence. He decided to make such utterances because of the negative attitude he has towards the old people and elderly patients in particular. His stereotype has made him to view the elderly as people who should not be given equal treatment like the younger generations because they do not deserve that (Braithwaite Schrodt, 2014). On the other hand, the Senior Nurse is an experienced professional who has been in the service for a very long time. He must have made that statement because he has experienced the same or relied on scientific research. There is enough research that has been done to prove that surgical operations performed on the elderly is risky because of the perioperative and postoperative complications such as falls, delirium, respiratory failure, congestive heart failure, functional decline, infection, vomiting, nausea, cardiac complications, and mortality (DiCenso; Cullum Ciliska, 2011). This is why the Senior Nurse does not like the elderly persons to be subjected to big operations. It might expose them to such complications. 2. The negative comments given by the Senior Nurse were inappropriate because they would negatively impact on the patient and student. First of all, the comment will interfere with the prosperity of the student or young nurse. It will make him lose confidence in the facility and elderly care. At the same time, it might influence him to develop a similar perception and start treating the elderly patients with prejudice. The Senior Nurse is quite influential and regarded by the younger nurses as mentors (Fairman, Rowe, Hassmiller Shalala, 2011). Since what they do is emulated by the younger ones, it is obvious that the student might end up developing poor interpersonal communication relations with a certain section of the patients. Besides, it shows that the Senior Nurse is discriminative and has developed a stereotype towards the elderly patients. The comments would make the patient to lose confidence in the services provided by the facility. The fact that one of the employees is not content with the services provided means that they are not up to the expected standard. Therefore, the patient will change his belief and start developing a negative attitude towards the facility, its employees and the services provided to the clients (Bylund, Peterson Cameron, 2012). A negative perception will end interfering with the recovery process of the patient. It might result into emotional and psychological distress that might end up affecting the patient even after discharge. 3. The negative comments given by the Senior Nurse were not good because they would have a lot of effects on the hospital. The comments would negatively affect the reputation of the organization. It would make the patient to believe that the hospital is not concerned about the life of the patients. The statement might be interpreted to mean that the surgeons insist on operating the elderly for the sake of making money, but not to improve their health (Fairman, Rowe, Hassmiller Shalala, 2011). Once the clients lose faith in the facility, they will cease from using its services. This is an unfortunate situation that might end up leading to the loss of patients, income, and profitability. 4. If I were present at the time when the statement was made, I would do my best to salvage the reputation of the hospital. First, I would use my persuasion skills to tell the senior nurse and the patient that it is necessary for the elderly persons to undergo big surgical operations because it is necessary for saving their critical lives. Besides, I would appeal to the Senior Nurse to refrain from such utterances because they can harm the organization (Braithwaite Schrodt, 2014). In case the Senior Nurse wishes to make such statements, I would appeal to him to do so in the absence of the patients. References Braithwaite, D.O. Schrodt, P. eds., 2014. Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perspectives. New York: Sage Publications. Bylund, C.L., Peterson, E.B. Cameron, K.A., 2012. A practitioner's guide to interpersonal communication theory: An overview and exploration of selected theories. Patient education and counseling, 87(3), pp.261-267. DiCenso, A.; Cullum, N. Ciliska, D. (2011). Implementing evidence-based nursing: some misconceptions. Evidence Based Nursing 1 (2): 3840. doi:10.1136/ebn.1.2.38.